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Preface xix 1 Introduction: Theories of Social Development 1 Bet You Didn't Know That . . . Newborns Can Recognize Their Mothers by Smell 2 Social Development: A Brief History 2 Critical Questions about Social Development 3 How Do Biological and Environmental Influences Affect Social Development? 3 What Role Do Children Play In Their Own Development? 4 What Is The Appropriate Unit for Studying Social Development? 4 Insights from Extremes: Genie, a "Wild Child" 5 Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous? 5 Is Social Behavior the Result of the Situation or the Child? 7 Is Social Development Universal Across Cultures? 7 Cultural Context: Parenting Advice Around the Globe 8 How Does Social Development Vary Across Historical Eras? 9 Is Social Development Related to Other Developmental Domains? 10 How Important Are Mothers for Children's Social Development? 10 Research Up Close: Children of the Great Depression 11 Is There a Single Pathway of Social Development? 12 What Influences How We Judge Children's Social Behavior? 13 Do Developmental Psychologists "Own" Social Development? 13 Is Social Development Focused on Only Basic Research or on Applied and Policy Relevant Concerns as Well? 14 Theoretical Perspectives on Social Development 14 Psychodynamic Perspective 15 Into Adulthood: Fatherhood and Generativity 19 Traditional Learning Theory Perspective 20 Cognitive Learning Perspective 21 Information-Processing Perspective 24 Cognitive Developmental Perspective 26 Systems-Theory Perspective 29 Biological Perspective 31 Life Span Perspective 35 A Variety of Theoretical Perspectives 36 Learning from Living Leaders 36 Chapter Summary 38 Key Terms 41 At the Movies 41 2 Research Methods: Tools for Discovery 43 Getting Started: Formulating Hypotheses, Asking Questions 44 Research Methods: Establishing Patterns and Causes 44 The Correlational Method 45 Laboratory Experiments 46 Field Experiments, Interventions, and Natural Experiments 48 Insights from Extremes: Lost and Found Children 49 Combining Different Methods 50 Real-World Application: Treating an Aggressive Child 51 The Case Study Approach 52 Studying Change Over Time 52 Cross-Sectional Design 52 The Longitudinal Design 52 Into Adulthood: Behavior in Childhood Predicts Adult Outcomes 55 The Cross-Sequential Design 55 Selecting a Sample 57 Representativeness of the Sample 57 The National Survey Approach 58 Meta-Analysis: Combining Results Across Studies 59 Studying Development Cross-Culturally 59 Cultural Context: Challenges for Researchers 60 Gathering Data 61 Children's Self-Reports 61 Research Up Close: The Puppet Interview Method 62 Reports by Family Members, Teachers, and Peers 64 Focus Groups 65 Direct Observation 66 Bet You Thought That . . .: Parents Can Accurately Report Retrospectively About Their Children's Early Years 67 Ways of Recording and Coding Observations 70 Analyzing Data 74 Ethics of Research with Children 76 Learning from Living Leaders 78 Chapter Summary 81 Key Terms 83 At the Movies 83 3 Biological Foundations: Roots in Neurons and Genes 85 Biological Preparedness for Social Interaction 86 How Are Babies Prepared? 86 Why Are Babies Prepared? 90 The Neurological Basis of Social Development 90 The Brain 91 Brain Growth and Development 91 Hemispheric Specialization 93 Neurons and Synapses 94 Brain Development and Experience 95 Mirror Neurons and the Social Brain 95 Genetics and Social Development 99 Bet You Thought That . . .: Genes Determine Your Potential 99 Methods of Studying Genetic Contributions to Development 100 Models of Genetic Influence 103 Genetic Anomalies 108 Research Up Close: A Genetic Risk for Drug Use 109 Insights from Extremes: Autism 110 Real-World Application: Genetic Counseling, Genetic Selection 112 Temperament: Causes and Consequences 113 Defining and Measuring Temperament 113 Cultural Context: Are Temperaments the Same Around the World? 115 The Biological Basis of Temperament 115 Early Evidence of Temperament 117 Consequences and Correlates of Temperament 117 Into Adulthood: Shy Children Thirty Years Later 120 Learning from Living Leaders 121 Chapter Summary 123 Key Terms 125 At the Movies 126 4 Attachment: Forming Close Relationships 127 Theories of Attachment 128 Psychoanalytic Theory 128 Learning Theories 129 Cognitive Developmental Theory 129 Ethological Theory 130 Insights from Extremes: Maternal Bonding 131 How Attachment Develops 132 Formation and Early Development of Attachment 133 What It Means to Be Attached 133 Attachment to Whom? 134 The Nature and Quality of Attachment 135 Bet You Thought That . . .: Babies Become Attached to Their Teddy Bears and Blankets 135 Different Types of Attachment Relationships 136 Cultural Context: Assessing Attachment in Different Cultures 140 Parents' Role in Infants' Attachment Development 141 Research Up Close: Early Experience, Hormones, and Attachment 145 Real-World Application: Attachment When Mother (or Father) Goes to Prison 149 Effects of Infant Characteristics on Attachment 150 Stability and Consequences of Attachment 151 Stability and Change in Attachment Over Time 151 Attachments in Older Children 153 Consequences of Attachment 153 Into Adulthood: From Early Attachment to Later Romantic Relationships 158 Learning from Living Leaders 159 Chapter Summary 161 Key Terms 163 At the Movies 163 5 Emotions: Thoughts about Feelings 165 What Are Emotions? 166 Why Are Emotions Important? 166 Perspectives on Emotional Development 166 Biological Perspective 167 Learning Perspective 167 Functional Perspective 168 Development of Emotions 168 Primary Emotions 169 Bet You Thought That. . .: A Smile Is a Smile Is a Smile 172 Secondary Emotions 178 Individual Differences in Emotional Expressiveness 181 Development of Emotional Understanding 182 Recognizing Emotions in Others 182 Cultural Context: Expressing and Understanding Emotions in Different Cultures 184 Beyond Recognition: Knowledge of and Understanding About Emotions 185 Emotion Regulation 188 Socialization of Emotion 189 Into Adulthood: Controlling Negative Emotions in Adulthood 190 Socialization by Parents 191 Socialization by Other Children 194 Research Up Close: Emotional Development in a High School Theater Program 194 Socialization by Teachers 195 Real-World Application: Teachers as Promoters of Emotional Competence 196 When Emotional Development Goes Wrong 197 Insights from Extremes: When Children Commit Suicide 199 Causes of Childhood Depression 200 Treating Childhood Depression 201 Learning from Living Leaders 202 Chapter Summary 203 Key Terms 204 At the Movies 204 6 Self and Other: Getting to Know Me, Getting to Know You 206 The Sense of Self 207 Developmental Origins of Self-Concept 208 Cultural Context: How Culture Shapes Self-Representations 210 Difficulty Developing a Sense of Self: Autistic Children 211 Self-Perceptions 212 Global Self-Esteem 212 Domain-Specific Perceptions 212 Learning Self-Appraisal 213 Gender Variations in Global Self-Esteem 214 Social Determinants of Self-Esteem 215 Identity Formation 216 Into Adulthood: Identity Formation Continues 219 Ethnic Identity 220 Religious Identity 225 Real-World Application: Sexual Orientation and Identity 226 Development of Knowledge about Others 228 Early Understanding of Intentions and Norms 228 Later Understanding of Mental States: Theory of Mind 228 Research Up Close: The Brain Beneath Theory of Mind 229 Bet You Thought That . . .: Babies Are Not Mind Readers 230 Understanding Psychological Trait Labels 231 Perspective Taking 232 Advancing Social Understanding 233 Stereotyping and Prejudice 235 Insights from Extremes: The Most Extreme Prejudice: Genocide 238 Communication Between Me and You: The Role of Language 239 Steps Toward Language Fluency 239 Semantic Development: The Power of Words 241 The Acquisition of Grammar: From Words to Sentences 241 Learning the Social Uses of Language 242 Learning from Living Leaders 244 Chapter Summary 245 Key Terms 247 At the Movies 247 7 Family: Early and Enduring Influences 248 The Family System 249 The Couple System 249 Into Adulthood: Transition to Parenthood 253 The Parent-Child System 254 Research Up Close: Transmission of Hostile Parenting across Generations 259 Bet You Thought That . . .: Parenting Is a Brain Drain, Not a Brain Booster 262 The Coparenting System 264 Insights from Extremes: When Is a Family Too Large? 265 The Sibling System 265 The Family Unit: Stories, Rituals, and Routines 270 Real-World Application: "Let's Have Dinner" 271 Family Variation: Social Class and Culture 272 Differences in Family Values and Practices Related to Socioeconomic Status 272 Cultural Patterns in Child Rearing 273 Cultural Context: How Effects of Parenting Vary Across Cultures 274 The Changing American Family 276 Parents' Employment and Child Development 277 Parenting after Thirty 280 New Reproductive Technologies 281 Adoption: Another Route to Parenthood 281 Gay and Lesbian Parents 282 Parenting Alone 283 Divorce and Remarriage 284 Learning from Living Leaders 291 Chapter Summary 293 Key Terms 295 At the Movies 295 8 Peers: A World of Their Own 297 Definitions and Distinctions 298 Developmental Patterns of Peer Interaction 298 First Encounters in Infancy 298 Social Exchanges between Toddlers 300 Peer Play in Early Childhood 301 Peer Society in the School Years 302 Peer Interactions in Adolescence 304 Peers as Socializers 304 Modeling Behavior 305 Reinforcing and Punishing Behavior 305 Contagion 305 Social Comparison 306 Cultural Context: Peer Roles and Relationships in Different Cultures 306 Peer Status 308 Studying Peer Status: Acceptance and Rejection 308 Factors that Affect Peer Acceptance 309 Consequences of Peer Rejection 315 Bet You Thought That . . .: Names Would Never Hurt You 316 Research Up Close: When "Love Thine Enemy" Fails 317 Insights from Extremes: From Rejection to Revenge? 318 Promoters of Peer Acceptance 320 Parents as Promoters of Peer Acceptance 320 Researchers as Promoters of Peer Acceptance 324 Peers Can Help Too 326 When Peers Become Friends 326 Age Changes in Friendship 326 Interactions with Friends 329 Insights from Extremes: When Children Love and Protect Each Other 330 Friendship Patterns 331 The Pros and Cons of Friendship 332 Romantic Relationships 332 Interaction in Groups 334 Dominance Hierarchies 335 Cliques, Crowds, and Gangs 336 Into Adulthood: What Happens When Jocks, Brains, and Princesses Grow Up 337 Real-World Application: Youth Gangs 339 Learning from Living Leaders 339 Chapter Summary 341 Key Terms 343 At the Movies 344 9 Schools, Mentors, and Media: Connections with Society 345 The Role of the School in Social Development 346 Schools as Social Communities 346 School Size and Organization 347 Class Size and Organization 350 Bet You Thought That . . .: Homeschooled Children Were Socially Disadvantaged 352 The Teachers' Impact 353 School-Family Links 355 Cultural Context: Matching Classroom Organization to Cultural Values and Practices 356 School Integration 359 After-School Programs 360 Mentors Supporting Social Development 361 Natural Mentors 362 Mentor Programs 363 Electronic Media and Children's Social Lives 364 Screen Media: Television and Digital Media 364 Positive Effects of Screen Media 364 Potential Negative Effects of Screen Media 365 Do Children Understand What They See? 369 Real-World Application: Advertising Influences Children's Choices 371 How Can Parents and Siblings Modify TV's Negative Effects? 372 Into Adulthood: Still Playing Games? 373 Playing Video Games 374 Smartphones and Social Media 375 Potential Positive Effects of Smartphones and Social Media 375 Concerns Regarding Smartphones and Social Media 377 Research Up Close: Role-Playing Games and Social Life 380 Insights from Extremes: The Risks of Sexting 381 Learning from Living Leaders 381 Chapter Summary 384 Key Terms 386 At the Movies 386 10 Sex and Gender: Vive La Différence? 388 Getting Started: Defining Sex and Gender 388 Gender Differences in Growth, Abilities, Activities, and Interests 389 Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood 392 Stability of Gender Typing 393 Into Adulthood: Occupations for Men and Women 393 Sex Differences in Gender Typing 395 Gender Stereotypes 395 Cultural Context: Cultural Differences in Gender Stereotypes 397 Biological Factors in Gender Differences 398 Bet You Thought That . . .: Gender Identity was Determined by Biological Sex 398 Evolutionary Theory and Gender Development 400 Insights from Extremes: The First American Transgendered Person 400 Hormones and Social Behavior 401 Gender and the Brain 402 Genetics of Gender 404 Biology and Cultural Expectations 404 Cognitive Factors in Gender Typing 405 Cognitive Developmental Theory 406 Gender-Schema Theory: An Information-Processing Approach 407 Comparison of Cognitive Developmental and Gender-Schema Theories 408 Social Influences on Gender Typing 408 Theories of Social Influence 408 Parents' Influence on Children's Gender-Typed Choices 409 Parents' Behavior toward Girls and Boys 410 Modeling Parents' Characteristics 413 When Father Is Absent 413 Research Up Close: Gender Roles in Counterculture Families 414 Siblings as Agents of Gender Socialization 416 Role Models in Books, Games, and Television 417 Peers, Gender Roles, and Gender Segregation 418 Real-World Application: Do Computers Widen the Gender Gap? 419 Schools and Teachers 422 Nature and Nurture 425 Androgyny 425 Learning from Living Leaders 427 Chapter Summary 428 Key Terms 430 At the Movies 431 11 Morality: Knowing Right, Doing Good 432 Moral Judgment 433 Piaget's Cognitive Theory of Moral Judgment 433 Kohlberg's Cognitive Theory of Moral Judgment 435 Insights from Extremes: Moral Heroes 437 Cultural Context: Justice versus Interpersonal Obligations in India and the United States 441 Turiel's Social Domain Theory 443 How Children Learn the Rules and Distinguish between Social Domains 446 Moral Behavior 449 Bet You Thought That . . .: Moral Judgment Leads to Moral Action 450 Self-Regulation of Behavior 451 Individual Differences in Moral Behavior 451 Consistency of Moral Behavior across Situations and Time 452 Into Adulthood: The Love of Money Is the Root of All Evil 453 Research Up Close: Children Telling Lies 454 Moral Emotions 456 Development of Moral Emotions 456 Do Moral Emotions Affect Moral Behavior? 458 Real-World Application: Adolescents' Competence to Stand Trial as Adults 459 The Whole Moral Child 460 Prosocial and Altruistic Behavior 461 How Prosocial Behavior and Reasoning Develop 461 Determinants of Prosocial Development 464 Learning from Living Leaders 470 Chapter Summary 473 Key Terms 474 At the Movies 474 12 Aggression: Insult and Injury 476 Types of Aggression 477 Patterns of Aggression 479 Developmental Changes in Aggression 479 Gender Differences in Aggression 481 Stability of Individual Differences in Aggression 483 Into Adulthood: From Childhood Aggression to Road Rage 485 Causes of Aggression 486 Biological Origins of Aggressive Behavior 486 Social Influences on the Development of Aggression 489 Insights from Extremes: Child Soldiers 493 Combined Biological and Social Influences on Aggression 497 Research Up Close: Genes, Environmental Triggers, and Aggressive Behavior 499 Sociocognitive Factors in the Development of Aggression 500 Bullies and Victims 502 Behavior of Bullies and Victims 503 Consequences of Bullying 505 Real-World Application: Cyberfighting and Cyberbullying 505 Conditions Leading to Bullying 507 Control of Aggression 508 Bet You Thought That . . .: You Could Reduce Aggressive Feelings by "Letting off Steam" 508 Cognitive Modification Strategies 509 Parents as Agents for Reducing Aggression 509 Schools as Venues for Intervention 510 Aggression Prevention: A Multipronged Effort 510 Cultural Context: Preventing Youth Violence 513 Learning from Living Leaders 514 Chapter Summary 516 Key Terms 517 At the Movies 518 13 Policy: Improving Children's Lives 519 What Determines Public Policy for Children? 520 Types of Public Policy 521 Children in Poverty: A Social Policy Challenge 523 Economic Hardship and Social Disadvantage 523 Effects of Poverty on Children 523 Programs to Reverse Effects of Poverty 524 Real-World Application: Early Intervention with Children in Poverty 527 Child Care: A Problem Lacking a Unified Policy 528 Choosing Child Care: What's a Parent to Do? 528 Effects of Child Care on Children 529 How Can Policy Help? 531 Research Up Close: The Florida Child Care Quality Improvement Study 534 Teenage Pregnancy: Children Having Children 534 Factors Leading to Teen Pregnancy 535 Bet You Thought That . . .: More Teens Are Having Sex Than Ever Before 536 Outcomes of Teen Pregnancies 536 Into Adulthood: When Teen Mothers Grow Up 538 Reducing Teen Pregnancy 539 Support for Teenage Mothers 542 Child Abuse within the Family 543 Child Abuse: A Family Affair 543 The Ecology of Child Abuse 545 Consequences of Abuse 546 Policies to Prevent Abuse 547 Cultural Context: Child Abuse and Children's Rights 547 Insights from Extremes: Suggestive Interrogations and Legal Policy 551 Learning from Living Leaders 553 Chapter Summary 556 Key Terms 558 At the Movies 559 14 Overarching Themes: Integrating Social Development 560 What We Know: Some Take-Home Principles 561 Views of the Social Child 561 Organization and Explanation of Children's Social Behavior 562 Social Agents and Contexts for Social Development 563 Progress and Pathways of Social Development 564 Glimpsing the Future: Methodological, Theoretical, and Policy Imperatives 566 Methodological Imperatives 566 Theoretical Imperatives 567 Policy Imperatives 568 Emerging Leaders in Social Development 569 At the Wedding 574 Glossary 575 Author Index 587 Subject Index 609 References (Available from your Instructor)

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